“It’s Just Addictive People That Make Addictive Videos”: Children’s Understanding of and Attitudes towards Influencer Marketing of Food and Beverages by YouTube Video Bloggers -- -- Abstract Exposure to influencer marketing of foods and beverages high in fat, sugar, and/or salt (HFSS) increases children’s immediate intake. This study qualitatively explored children’s understanding of, and attitudes -- -- towards, this marketing, to elucidate potential mechanisms through which exposure affects behavior. In six focus groups (n = 4) children (10–11 years) were shown a YouTube video featuring influencer marketing of an HFSS product. Inductive thematic analysis identified six themes from children’s discussions of this marketing: (1) YouTubers fill a gap -- -- from children’s discussions of this marketing: (1) YouTubers fill a gap in children’s lives, (2) the accessibility of YouTubers increases children’s understanding of their actions, (3) influencer marketing impacts all—the influencer, the brand, and the viewer, (4) attitudes towards influencer marketing are most affected by a YouTuber’s familiarity, (5) YouTuber influencer marketing is effective because they are not ‘strangers’, (6) children feel able to resist influencer marketing of HFSS products. Children had an understanding of the persuasive intent of this marketing, and although most were sceptical, -- -- persuasive intent of this marketing, and although most were sceptical, familiar YouTubers elicited particularly sympathetic attitudes. Children felt affected by influencer marketing of HFSS products, but believed they were able to resist it. Beyond theoretical insight, this study adds to the growing body of evidence to suggest children’s -- -- believed they were able to resist it. Beyond theoretical insight, this study adds to the growing body of evidence to suggest children’s exposure to HFSS influencer marketing should be reduced. Keywords: food, beverage, HFSS, influencer marketing, YouTube, children, understanding, attitudes, qualitative, focus group -- -- consumption of, these items [4,5]. They also highlight significant gaps in research to date, notably a lack of qualitative studies exploring how newer forms of digital marketing (e.g., influencer marketing) are received by children [6]. Exploration of children’s understanding of, and attitudes towards, HFSS product marketing in digital media, which -- -- their videos [13,14] but often also receive payments or gifts from brands for doing so [15,16,17]. Collaborations between brands and YouTubers (also referred to as ‘influencers’) is a fast-growing marketing technique referred to as ‘influencer marketing’ [17]. Industry spend on this form of marketing is predicted to increase from $500 million per year in 2018 to $5–$10 billion per year in 2023 [18]. -- -- $500 million per year in 2018 to $5–$10 billion per year in 2023 [18]. Children are frequently exposed to influencer marketing of HFSS food and beverage products and brands on social media [14,19,20,21]. This is a concern given that evidence suggests that exposure, via Instagram -- -- theoretical or psychological underpinnings of these effects. Social cognitive theory [24] would assert that these findings are likely due to children viewing influencers as role models to learn appropriate behaviors. Consistent with this theory, research shows that children prefer celebrity-endorsed HFSS products and brands [25,26,27,28]. -- -- endorser, the likeability of the endorser, and the level of risk associated with adopting the endorser’s behavior [32,33]. Studies have yet to fully understand the extent to which children view influencers as role models or as credible sources of information. -- -- as role models or as credible sources of information. Although children’s perception of influencer marketing of HFSS products specifically has not been explored, qualitative research has focused on -- specifically has not been explored, qualitative research has focused on their understanding of influencer marketing of non-food products [34,35,36]. Findings from these studies demonstrate that compared with other forms of digital marketing (e.g., YouTube pop-up advertisements), -- -- [34,35,36]. Findings from these studies demonstrate that compared with other forms of digital marketing (e.g., YouTube pop-up advertisements), children (9 and 12 years) find influencer marketing via YouTubers to be less irritating because it does not interrupt media content, and provides useful product information (e.g., price) [36]. Children also -- -- provides useful product information (e.g., price) [36]. Children also feel that YouTubers promote products that are more relevant [34,35], likely because influencer marketing is embedded in content that children have actively selected to watch [7,12]. In their videos, YouTubers regularly disclose personal details [37] and speak to the -- -- YouTube’s ‘comment’ and ‘like’ functions and as a result may feel a sense of familiarity with YouTubers [39]. The literature shows that product recommendations from familiar influencers are trusted more than traditional celebrities [31,40,41,42] or influencers who are less familiar [11,17,43,44]. However, research has not qualitatively explored whether children’s familiarity with YouTubers affects how they -- -- familiar [11,17,43,44]. However, research has not qualitatively explored whether children’s familiarity with YouTubers affects how they receive influencer marketing of HFSS products. Research is needed to explore these views in more detail and to understand whether this may -- explore these views in more detail and to understand whether this may influence children’s understanding of, and attitudes towards, influencer marketing of HFSS foods and beverages. Persuasion knowledge is the ability to recognise and evaluate the -- -- children to social appeals and branding [53,55]. Therefore, even with knowledge of persuasive intent, children’s appetitive response can be influenced by HFSS product marketing [22,56,57,58,59]. In order for children to defend against the effects of food and beverage advertising, the food marketing defence model [52] asserts that four -- -- of its persuasive intent, and the ability and the motivation to resist. Children’s satisfaction of these conditions has not been qualitatively explored in response to exposure to influencer marketing of HFSS products and may provide insight into how and why children are affected. -- -- affected. Digital marketing techniques, such as influencer marketing, often take the form of non-advertising content and can be difficult for even adults to recognise as advertising [15,60,61,62]. To try to mitigate -- -- adults to recognise as advertising [15,60,61,62]. To try to mitigate against deception, regulations in some countries, including the self-regulatory codes in the UK, require that influencers use an advertising disclosure to highlight the commercial nature of this content. It is suggested that products featured in receipt of brand -- -- payment should be disclosed with ‘#ad’ [63] and those in receipt of brand gifting with ‘#gifted’ [64]. However, research shows that children (9–11-years) exposed to influencer marketing of a HFSS product, even with the presence of an advertising disclosure, increase immediate intake compared with those in a control group [22]. -- -- the source. A viewer’s scepticism is low and identification high when a viewer has a pre-existing knowledge of the consumer (e.g., when an influencer is followed on social media), however, a viewer’s scepticism is high and identification low when the source is an unfamiliar -- is high and identification low when the source is an unfamiliar consumer (e.g., when an influencer is not followed on social media). Research has not yet explored children’s attitudes towards advertising -- Research has not yet explored children’s attitudes towards advertising disclosures used in influencer marketing and whether attitudes remain for familiar and less familiar influencers. Based on the identified gaps in knowledge, the following research -- -- questions were formulated for this study: (1) What are children’s perceptions of YouTubers? (2) What is children’s understanding of, and attitudes towards, the techniques used in influencer marketing of HFSS products? (3) What is children’s understanding of, and attitudes towards, the behavioural effects of this marketing? Given that these -- -- 2.2. Materials 2.2.1. YouTube Video Featuring Influencer Marketing -- Children were shown a YouTube video that featured influencer marketing of an HFSS product to inform focus group discussions. The video, ‘Nutella Breakfast Party’ (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZyIHfeguqlE) -- -- available but they are known to be popular with children (5–15 years) in the UK [73] and are consistent with those used in previous experimental studies investigating the extent, nature and impact of influencer food marketing [14,22,23]. Notably, the influencer marketing campaign shown was featured in content likely to be viewed by children, and not in content specifically targeted at them (e.g., YouTube Kids -- -- the video and ‘subscribe’ to the YouTubers’ channel. 2.2.2. Photographs of Influencer Marketing Techniques Six photographic stills (see Supplementary Materials S1) were created -- -- Six photographic stills (see Supplementary Materials S1) were created from the YouTube video using the VideoPad video editor. Five captured an influencer marketing technique (e.g., the use of hashtags to increase viewer engagement) and one captured the on-screen advertising disclosure #ad. Each photograph was presented individually during focus -- -- flexibility while ensuring consistency in topics across groups [75]. The guide included non-leading, open-ended questions allowing data collection on children’s perceptions of YouTubers, influencer marketing of an HFSS product, and effects on behaviour. Children were encouraged to comment on each other’s responses [76] to enable conversations about -- -- of an HFSS product, and effects on behaviour. Children were encouraged to comment on each other’s responses [76] to enable conversations about influencer marketing that researcher probing alone may not have achieved. -- -- introduced herself. A series of questions on social media use were administered to build a rapport and to check whether each child was familiar with watching YouTubers, and the general concept of influencer marketing. The interviewer used child-friendly probing techniques (e.g., prompts that used simple wording) and took a neutral position on -- -- with the YouTubers, the interviewer described them as being ‘popular YouTubers’. Children were also informed that this video featured influencer marketing for Nutella chocolate spread. Most children liked Nutella; however, three children disliked the taste or had allergies. Children were then shown the YouTube video and were asked not to talk -- -- semi-structured interview guide and photographic stills were used to lead focus group discussions. The interviewer allowed children to speak freely about the influencer marketing campaign, but also about previous encounters with this type of marketing. Field notes were made by the interviewer to inform follow-up questions in future groups. At the end -- -- analysis was well-suited to these data because it acknowledges that individuals create meaning from their own experiences (i.e., individual experiences of influencer marketing) as well as the broader social context (i.e., social and environmental determinants of how influencer marketing is interpreted). Transcripts were repeatedly read for familiarisation. Words and sentences were firstly open-coded according -- -- only coded if they were relevant to the three main research questions (1) children’s perceptions of YouTubers (2) children’s understanding of, and attitudes towards, the techniques used in influencer marketing of HFSS products and (3) children’s understanding of and attitude towards the behavioural effects of this marketing. Notably, although -- -- Focus group transcripts were analysed to gain a deeper understanding of (1) children’s perceptions of YouTubers (2) children’s understanding of, and attitudes towards, the techniques used in influencer marketing of HFSS products, and (3) children’s understanding of, and attitudes towards, the behavioural effects of this marketing. A total of six -- -- themes were developed: (1) YouTubers fill a gap in children’s lives, (2) the accessibility of YouTubers increases children’s understanding of their actions, (3) Influencer marketing impacts all-the influencer, the brand, and the viewer, (4) attitudes towards influencer marketing are most affected by a YouTuber’s familiarity, (5) YouTuber influencer marketing is effective because they are not ‘strangers’, and (6) -- marketing is effective because they are not ‘strangers’, and (6) children feel able to resist influencer marketing of HFSS products. 3.1. RQ1: Children’s Perceptions of YouTubers -- -- and whose content they watch regularly (Theme 1). Familiarity between children and YouTubers appeared to influence judgement of their actions. For example, children’s favourite YouTubers were often understood to be driven by a passion for making videos, -- -- 3.2. RQ2: Children’s Understanding Of, and Attitudes towards, the Techniques Used in Influencer Marketing of HFSS Products -- 3.2.1. Theme 3: Influencer Marketing Impacts all—The Influencer, the Brand and the Viewer -- -- and the Viewer When probing children’s understanding of the influencer marketing techniques used to promote Nutella, opinions were divided on who they -- techniques used to promote Nutella, opinions were divided on who they best served: the influencer, the brand or the viewer. The perceived benefits for each are detailed below: -- -- benefits for each are detailed below: Influencer Marketing Impacts the Brand -- The purpose of influencer marketing was understood by most children as a means to increase awareness and purchasing of Nutella—L (boy, aged 10): -- -- In the above quote the child displays a clear awareness of the sizeable impact that just one YouTuber can have for a brand. The impact is understood to be achieved by the YouTuber increasing viewers’ exposure to the brand, which can be further increased by subscribers sharing -- -- that YouTubers act like market researchers. They do so by gathering viewers’ ideas, which “might be better than the ones they (the brand/influencer) had”, so that the brand can create better future campaigns. Indeed, advertisements that are targeted, such as those tailored to viewers’ preferences, are found to be particularly -- -- campaigns. Indeed, advertisements that are targeted, such as those tailored to viewers’ preferences, are found to be particularly impactful [81,82]. In addition, many recognised that viewers would need to purchase Nutella in order to share these images and recipe ideas and so sales of Nutella would increase. When exploring children’s -- -- prizes on social media HFSS brand pages [83]. Influencer Marketing Impacts the Influencer Some children felt that YouTubers who collaborate with popular brands -- -- Some children felt that YouTubers who collaborate with popular brands like Nutella benefit from this partnership, just as celebrities do from brand endorsements [84]. YouTube videos which feature influencer-brand collaborations were understood to attract subscribers of the brand ‘Nutella fans’ as well as subscribers of the YouTuber, and so would -- -- because it’s just meat.” Influencer Marketing Impacts the Viewer Although some children believed there were no benefits for viewers -- -- Although some children believed there were no benefits for viewers exposed to influencer marketing: “It doesn’t work well for us,” consistent with previous research which finds that viewers dislike the commercialisation of YouTube [13,37], many saw some benefits. For -- -- marketing that interrupts media content—S (girl, aged 11): “With this type (influencer marketing) you are pressing on it because you want to watch it whereas with pop-up ones, you might not want to watch it.” -- -- want to watch it.” Although influencer marketing does in a sense interrupt media content, as a YouTuber’s regular non-commercial content is replaced with commercial content, children did not consider this an interruption. -- -- non-relevant products [34,35,36,72]. Children also described watching YouTubers’ regular content to gain information and experience (Theme 1) and influencer marketing may serve the same purpose. For example, some children described feeling inspired to recreate the YouTuber’s Nutella recipe ideas shared in the video. Adolescents also value the -- -- children described feeling inspired to recreate the YouTuber’s Nutella recipe ideas shared in the video. Adolescents also value the information provided in influencer marketing [65]. In addition, competitions and discount codes provided during influencer marketing of HFSS products were viewed to particularly benefit children because they enable access to products which are usually restricted due to parental -- -- YouTubers serve may fundamentally be the same. 3.2.2. Theme 4: Attitudes towards Influencer Marketing Are Most Affected by a YouTuber’s Familiarity -- -- YouTuber’s Familiarity Persuasion knowledge of influencer marketing was often expressed as a lack of trust in the YouTuber’s opinion of the promoted product—H (boy, aged 11): “It’s saying that he’s [the YouTuber’s] not doing it because -- -- YouTuber create and consume foods they were less able to. Scepticism towards influencer marketing was less prominent when children were asked to consider how they would feel if their favourite YouTuber promoted Nutella: -- -- the source. Regulations in the UK require that influencers use an advertising disclosure to highlight products featured in receipt of brand payment ‘#ad’ [63] or brand gifting ‘#gifted’ [64]. Consistent with the -- -- ‘hashtag not sponsored’. It just made me laugh.” Such declarations can be confusing [87]. Relatedly, children were confused by YouTubers who essentially do the opposite and make content look like influencer marketing, through the use of hashtags and brand names, in order to attract future brand deals. Thus, it is not surprising that children -- -- marketing, through the use of hashtags and brand names, in order to attract future brand deals. Thus, it is not surprising that children misinterpret influencer marketing in YouTube videos [83]. These findings have interesting implications for the regulation of -- -- These findings have interesting implications for the regulation of advertising disclosures. Not only do many influencers fail to comply with the rules [20,88,89], but many children in the current study did not consider advertising disclosures to have any real significance in -- -- not consider advertising disclosures to have any real significance in determining their attitude towards the promoted product. This is likely why research shows advertising disclosures have no protective impact on children’s (9–11-years) immediate intake when featured during -- children’s (9–11-years) immediate intake when featured during influencer marketing of an HFSS product [22]. As suggested in Theme 2, children were less sceptical of marketing by YouTubers whom they feel they know well. This is a concern because children’s greatest exposure -- -- Effects of This Marketing 3.3.1. Theme 5: YouTuber Influencer Marketing Is Effective Because They Are Not Strangers -- -- Not Strangers Influencer marketing of HFSS products was considered to be particularly effective because YouTubers are familiar, whereas in other forms of marketing (e.g., television advertisements) endorsement is often -- -- supports the work of researchers who claim that electronic word of mouth (eWOM) is an influential marketing technique [90,91,92,93]. Not only is influencer marketing akin to an eWOM recommendation, given that children are trusting of YouTubers who are familiar (Theme 4), but it also promotes genuine eWOM recommendations to be shared by encouraging -- -- viewers to share this marketing (Theme 3). Some children thought that influencer marketing is likely effective because viewers will wish to imitate the YouTuber’s behavior—M (boy, aged 11): “If they [viewer] know a famous person likes it […] they want -- -- (Theme 1). It was noted that a drawback of influencer marketing is that an influencer may be disliked, and so their endorsement of an HFSS product may actually negatively affect the brand—H (boy, aged 11): “They [viewer] might hate Alfie Deyes [YouTuber], so they might think, ‘He’s -- -- endorsement [42], it is unlikely that children watch YouTubers that they do not like. Unlike celebrity endorsement campaigns on television, which are viewed by many different types of people, influencer marketing is more likely only viewed by those that admire or who have -- marketing is more likely only viewed by those that admire or who have an interest in the influencer. -- Children’s beliefs about the likely effects of influencer marketing are consistent with advertisers’ increased spend in this area [17,18] and as result of this fast-growing industry children are frequently exposed -- -- consistent with advertisers’ increased spend in this area [17,18] and as result of this fast-growing industry children are frequently exposed to influencer marketing of HFSS food and beverage products [14,19,20,21]. -- -- [14,19,20,21]. 3.3.2. Theme 6: Children Feel Able to Resist Influencer Marketing of HFSS Products -- -- Many children displayed a reasonably comprehensive understanding of the persuasive intent of influencer marketing (Theme 3), consistent with previous qualitative research which explored children’s (9 and 12 -- previous qualitative research which explored children’s (9 and 12 years) perception of influencer marketing [36]. This may indicate that earlier theories of advertising, such as the persuasion knowledge model [47] which asserts that young children (12 years and under) are less -- -- advertising awareness alone has no protective effect on children’s appetitive response to digital marketing of HFSS foods [56,57,58,59] or more specifically influencer marketing of these foods [22,23]. This is likely because children under the age of 12 are unlikely to apply advertising knowledge while being exposed to an advertisement, unless -- -- they are overtly made aware of the persuasive intent [51]. Consistent with these findings, many children in the current study believed they were affected by exposure to the influencer marketing campaign for Nutella, and commonly referenced experiencing a physiological reaction—H (boy, aged 11): “My mouth’s watering, I’m so hungry.” -- -- less motivated by health than adults [96], which is likely why the majority of children reported no such strategy. Another coping strategy reported to help children resist the effect of influencer marketing of HFSS products was to unsubscribe to YouTubers’ channels, and so avoid future exposure. However, given the connection that most children feel -- -- irrespective of whether YouTubers’ content explicitly features marketing or not. Most children were attuned to the persuasive intent of techniques used in influencer marketing, and although most had sceptical attitudes towards this content, many were more forgiving and trusting of their favourite YouTubers. In fact, favourite YouTubers -- -- in a group setting due to peer pressure [69], children in the current study appeared relaxed and were comfortable challenging each other’s viewpoints of influencer marketing. However, the study did have some limitations. Firstly, to avoid children becoming bored, children were only shown the marketing content from the original video. This focused -- -- where it is typically embedded in noncommercial content [97]. Relatedly, it is possible that demand characteristics (e.g., attention drawn to advertising through interviewer questioning) may have impacted children’s responses, leading them to be more focused on the persuasive intent of the content rather than their enjoyment of content itself. -- -- entertaining marketing [51]. Secondly, not all of the children liked Nutella and so these children may have underestimated their understanding of the marketing impact. Thirdly, children’s previous liking of the YouTuber was not measured, and as discovered in the analysis, likely affected responses [98]. However, children were -- -- The aim of this qualitative research was to provide novel insight into children’s attitudes and understanding of influencer marketing of HFSS products through social media. In order to draw generalisable conclusions, future research should adopt quantitative research methods -- -- conclusions, future research should adopt quantitative research methods to empirically assess whether children’s attitudes towards and understanding of this marketing impacts eating-related behaviors. Future qualitative research could explore how children perceive -- Future qualitative research could explore how children perceive influencer marketing of healthier foods, for which there is a lack of evidence of impact [23]. Research could also explore how food and beverage cues which are not explicitly declared as advertising are received by children, which is how most food cues are presented in -- -- content. Media literacy programmes (e.g., teaching children about the persuasive intent of advertising) are likely not necessary, as children had a reasonable understanding of the purpose of influencer marketing. Nevertheless, children valued the information shared and were -- Nevertheless, children valued the information shared and were entertained by influencer marketing, particularly if the YouTuber was valued for such provisions in their regular content. Such positive attitudes towards marketing are in stark contrast to children’s -- -- attitudes towards other marketing techniques, which are generally experienced as intrusive and disliked. This study offers practical insight from those who are most likely impacted by HFSS product marketing, children, and has important implications for the ongoing societal and political debate about children and advertising. Although -- -- the actual age of a user) is collected. A combined effort between policymakers, social media platforms, brands, advertising agencies and influencers is required. Acknowledgments -- -- The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/2/449/s1, Figure S1: Photographic stills of influencer marketing techniques featured in the YouTuber’s video, Interview guide. Click here for additional data file.^(873K, zip) -- -- References 1. Norman J., Kelly B., Boyland E., McMahon A.T. The Impact of Marketing and Advertising on Food Behaviours: Evaluating the Evidence for a Causal Relationship. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2016;5:139–149. doi: -- -- 10.3945/ajcn.115.120022. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] 5. 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