Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
For more information, visit [28]http://www.pennstatehershey.org/rhythm
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Retrieved from http://www.voices.no/columnist/colpirelli190508.php
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And
Society, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
[26]http://www.blackwell-compass.com/home_video#gecofilm.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times.
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Formats:
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* Full Text |
* [6]PDF (32K)
J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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__________________________________________________________________
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* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
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system in 1990-1999.
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[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
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the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
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[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
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exposure to recreational water.
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[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
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a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
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campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
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* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
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[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
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[Parasitol Res. 2002]
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extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
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N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
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* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
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* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
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Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
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[[234]edit] Notes
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
Retrieved from "[379]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm"
[380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Life's Natural Rhythm
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