JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références 1. LYNXIMGMAP:http://www.jcpa.org/dje/books/am-ch2.htm#depi 2. LYNXIMGMAP:http://www.jcpa.org/dje/books/am-ch2.htm#back 3. http://www.jcpa.org/djeindex.htm 4. http://www.jcpa.org/index.htm 5. http://www.jcpa.org/dje/books/am-ch2.htm#top [USEMAP] http://www.jcpa.org/dje/books/am-ch2.htm#back 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 2. http://www.jcpa.org/index.htm 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] http://www.jcpa.org/dje/books/am-ch2.htm#depi 1. http://www.jcpa.org/djeindex.htm [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 1. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=presentation 2. LYNXIMGMAP:http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=20449527#Map 3. http://www.inist.fr/article29.html 4. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=presentation 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 6. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=presentation 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr 8. mailto:?subject=R%E9f%E9rence%20INIST-CNRS%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr&body=Pour%20visualiser%20la%20r%E9f%E9rence%20compl%E8te,%20cliquer%20sur%20le%20lien%20suivant%20/%20To%20view%20the%20full%20reference,%20click%20on%20the%20link%20below:%0Dhttp://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN%26cpsidt=20449527 9. http://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&username=inist 10. http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D20449527 11. mailto:?subject=R%E9f%E9rence%20INIST-CNRS%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr&body=Pour%20visualiser%20la%20r%E9f%E9rence%20compl%E8te,%20cliquer%20sur%20le%20lien%20suivant%20To%20view%20the%20full%20reference,%20click%20on%20the%20link%20below:%0Dhttp://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN%26cpsidt=20449527 12. http://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&username=inist 13. http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D20449527 [USEMAP] http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=20449527#Map 1. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=presentation 2. http://www.cnrs.fr/ 3. http://www.inist.fr/ 4. http://www2.cnrs.fr/band/5.htm * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. 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Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary * [http:www.baokutcr.com] [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound Retrieved from "[153]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrobeat" [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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[31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 [56]Julian Bennett Holmes http://julianbh.com/ Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 [60]Peter Gasston http://www.css3.info/blog/ Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: http://meyerweb.com/eric/thoughts/2006/02/08/unitless-line-heights/ * [61]12/12/2006 [62]Jake Archibald http://www.jakearchibald.com It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 [66]Rob Weychert http://www.robweychert.com/ Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. http://thenoodleincident.com/tutorials/box_lesson/font/index.html * [69]13/12/2006 [70]Wilson Miner http://www.wilsonminer.com/ I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 [72]Richard Rutter http://clagnut.com/ Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): http://webtypography.net/24ways2006/24ways-v2.html However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 [74]Richard Rutter http://clagnut.com/ Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 [78]Matthew Pennell http://www.thewatchmakerproject.com/ GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 [80]Theodore Rosendorf http://blogdorf.com It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 [82]Jeff L http://www.bogglethemind.com/ I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 [84]Richard Rutter http://clagnut.com/ If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 [86]Steve C. http://www.stevecochrane.com Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) http://webtypography.net/Rhythm_and_Proportion/Horizontal_Motion/2. 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 [90]Nate K http://nateklaiber.com I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 [92]Paul Bell http://www.boilerroomdigital.co.uk I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 [100]VardenRhode http://tr.im/VRdesign Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 [102]Adam http://www.finestfolkart.com Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 [108]Wade http://voltagecreative.com I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 [112]Darren Roberts http://www.pureandsimpleweb.co.uk/ Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références 1. http://feeds.feedburner.com/24ways 2. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm#content 3. http://24ways.org/2005 4. http://24ways.org/2006 5. http://24ways.org/2007 6. http://24ways.org/2008 7. http://24ways.org/2009 8. http://24ways.org/2006/gravity-defying-page-corners 9. http://24ways.org/2006/cheating-color 10. http://24ways.org/2006/photographic-palettes 11. http://24ways.org/2006/a-scripting-carol 12. http://24ways.org/2006/intricate-fluid-layouts 13. http://24ways.org/2006/the-mobile-web-simplified 14. http://24ways.org/2006/boost-your-hyperlink-power 15. http://24ways.org/2006/knockout-type 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http://twitter.com/24ways 37. http://feeds.feedburner.com/24ways 38. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 39. http://clagnut.com/ 40. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm#article 41. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm#comments 42. http://24ways.org/examples/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/example.html 43. http://24ways.org/examples/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/example.html 44. http://24ways.org/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt 45. http://24ways.org/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt 46. http://24ways.org/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt 47. http://developer.yahoo.com/yui/reset/ 48. http://24ways.org/examples/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/example.html 49. http://24ways.org/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt 50. http://24ways.org/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt 51. http://24ways.org/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt 52. http://24ways.org/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt 53. http://twitter.com/?status=Compose+to+a+Vertical+Rhythm+http://24ways.org/200612 54. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm#comments 56. http://julianbh.com/ 58. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 60. http://www.css3.info/blog/ 62. http://www.jakearchibald.com/ 64. http://24ways.org/2006/donotremove.co.uk 66. http://www.robweychert.com/ 68. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 70. http://www.wilsonminer.com/ 72. http://clagnut.com/ 74. http://clagnut.com/ 76. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 78. http://www.thewatchmakerproject.com/ 80. http://blogdorf.com/ 82. http://www.bogglethemind.com/ 84. http://clagnut.com/ 86. http://www.stevecochrane.com/ 88. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 90. http://nateklaiber.com/ 92. http://www.boilerroomdigital.co.uk/ 94. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 96. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 98. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 100. http://tr.im/VRdesign 102. http://www.finestfolkart.com/ 104. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 106. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 108. http://voltagecreative.com/ 110. http://24ways.org/2006/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm 112. http://www.pureandsimpleweb.co.uk/ 113. http://www.textism.com/tools/textile/ 114. http://24ways.org/authors/richardrutter 115. http://clearleft.com/ 116. http://webtypography.net/ 117. http://clagnut.com/ 118. http://24ways.org/authors/richardrutter 119. http://24ways.org/2009/real-fonts-and-rendering 120. http://24ways.org/authors/jeffreyzeldman 121. http://24ways.org/2009/spruce-it-up 122. http://24ways.org/authors/jonathansnook 123. http://24ways.org/2009/designing-for-the-switch 124. http://24ways.org/authors/markboulton 125. http://24ways.org/2009/type-inspired-interfaces 126. http://24ways.org/authors/danmall 127. http://24ways.org/2008/a-festive-type-folly 128. http://24ways.org/authors/jontan 129. http://24ways.org/2007/increase-your-font-stacks-with-font-matrix 130. http://24ways.org/authors/richardrutter 131. http://24ways.org/2007/typesetting-tables 132. http://24ways.org/authors/markboulton 133. http://24ways.org/2006/knockout-type 134. http://24ways.org/authors/shauninman 135. http://24ways.org/2005/an-explanation-of-ems 136. http://24ways.org/authors/richardrutter 137. http://24ways.org/2008 138. http://grabaperch.com/ 139. http://edgeofmyseat.com/ 140. http://allinthehead.com/ 141. http://suda.co.uk/ 142. http://madebyelephant.com/ 143. http://24ways.org/authors 144. http://feeds.feedburner.com/24ways 145. http://twitter.com/24ways 146. http://www.memset.com/?source=mclelaa [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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[44]Watanabe SI [45]Nomura M [46]on PubMed [47]Nagane M [48]Yoshimura K [49]Watanabe SI [50]Nomura M * Related articles/pages [51]on Google [52]on Google Scholar [53]on PubMed Tools: * [54]Download citation(s) * [55]Download XML * [56]Email to a friend * [57]Order reprints * [58]Post a comment * [59]Nominate for award Post to: * [60]Citeulike * [61]Connotea * [62]Del.icio.us * [63]Facebook * [64]Twitter [65]Open Access Research A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email ^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan ^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science, Japan ^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan ^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical University, Japan [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: [70]http://www.jcircadianrhythms.com/content/7/1/10 Received: 3 February 2009 Accepted: 5 August 2009 Published: 5 August 2009 © 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ([71]http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. 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[37]Readers' comments [38]RSS * [39]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [40]on Google Scholar [41]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [42]on Google Scholar [43]Conroy DA [44]Spielman AJ [45]Scott RQ [46]on PubMed [47]Conroy DA [48]Spielman AJ [49]Scott RQ * Related articles/pages [50]on Google [51]on Google Scholar [52]on PubMed Tools: * [53]Download citation(s) * [54]Download XML * [55]Email to a friend * [56]Order reprints * [57]Post a comment Post to: * [58]Citeulike * [59]Connotea * [60]Del.icio.us * [61]Facebook * [62]Twitter [63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email ^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, New York, USA ^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, USA ^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: [68]http://www.jcircadianrhythms.com/content/3/1/3 Received: 21 December 2004 Accepted: 10 March 2005 Published: 10 March 2005 © 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ([69]http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of day. Methods Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position. Results A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 = 0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures (r = 0.77, p < 0.01). Conclusion In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24 hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. Background It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening [[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10 ,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors [[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes. An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during the sleep period. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1 ,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed. We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography (EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study. Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were collected every half hour. Methods Subject selection Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome). Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to 10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers. Laboratory constant routine protocol The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine" (CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate. Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2. Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^® liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours. Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject participated in the CR per 30-hour period. This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject, subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before (M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were no other significant differences detected between these two time periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these subject's data were included in subsequent analyses. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19]. CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery (MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window. An observer who was present continuously during the recordings evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line. Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker Body temperature recordings Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further analysis. Salivary melatonin Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3 pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body temperature minimum [[90]20]. Polygraphic recordings Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30 hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2, C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram (EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator (DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were scored by RQS and DAC. Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2 An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare, Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09 and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Data Analyses Data reduction and statistical procedures CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate confounding effects such as expectation effects. The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and [92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir (Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir (Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. [96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 6:05 am. [97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values (cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm. [98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates the CBT nadir. [99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01). To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. Estimation of circadian phase A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within 24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & = constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series (vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum (horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software, Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall phase difference between CBT and CBFV. Results Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and 55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were excluded from analysis. Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7 hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml). CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a 6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF = 10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from 0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure [104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06. Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30, p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to circadian phase. Discussion This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously demonstrated with the CR [[105]21]. Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase, the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition. Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls [[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness is effortlessly maintained before bedtime. Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24], particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25]. Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of REM sleep, [[112]26 ,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate). Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep. Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however, that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34]. The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate [[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago [[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast, two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37 ,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined. Mechanisms of CBFV regulation This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39]. Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al. [[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with changes in CBFV [[130]41 ,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39]. Clinical correlation The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the morning during which several physiological changes have been observed. For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning [[133]15 ,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm [[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability [[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed. Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even without changes in posture or activity. Conclusion Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep, exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. List of abbreviations CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity CBT Core Body Temperature TCD Transcranial Doppler EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset EEG Electroencephalogram MCA Middle Cerebral Artery FFT Fast Fourier Transformation CR Constant routine EMG Electromyogram SBP Systolic Blood Pressure DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure CVA Cerebrovascular accident MI Myocardial infarction Competing interests The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version. RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben, Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D. of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi, Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. 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http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/about/faq?name=impactfactor 265. http://www.citeulike.org/posturl?url=http://www.jcircadianrhythms.com/content/3/1/3 266. http://www.connotea.org/addpopup?continue=confirm&uri=http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 267. http://del.icio.us/post?url=http://www.jcircadianrhythms.com/content/3/1/3&title=Daily%20rhythm%20of%20cerebral%20blood%20flow%20velocity 268. http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=http://www.jcircadianrhythms.com/content/3/1/3 269. http://twitter.com/home?status=%23journalofcircadianrhythms%20Daily%20rhythm%20of%20cerebral%20blood%20flow%20velocity%20http://www.jcircadianrhythms.com/content/3/1/3 Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees, anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry. The meters with two-syllable feet are * IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold * TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers * SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! Meters with three-syllable feet are * ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still * DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl) Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs, trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8). The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem entitled "Fleas": Adam Had'em. Here are some more serious examples of the various meters. iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables) * That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables) * Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables) * And the sound | of a voice | that is still dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the last dactyl) * This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the | hemlocks __________________________________________________________________ [1]A note on the source. __________________________________________________________________ [2]POETRY HOME | [3]ENGLISH 88 READING LIST | [4]POETRY NEWS | [5]FILREIS HOME ________________________________________ Search __________________________________________________________________ Document URL: http://www.english.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/meter.html Last modified: Wednesday, 18-Jul-2007 16:27:43 EDT Références 1. http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/preminger.html 2. http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/home.html 3. http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/schedule.html 4. http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/hot.html 5. http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/home.html #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Meter (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search [8]Question book-new.svg This article needs additional [9]citations for [10]verification. Please help [11]improve this article by adding [12]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [13]challenged and [14]removed. (February 2009) In [15]poetry, the meter (or metre) is the basic [16]rhythmic structure of a [17]verse. Many traditional [18]verse forms prescribe a specific verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular order. [19]Prosody is a more general [20]linguistic term, that includes poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of [21]prose, whether formal or informal. The [22]scansion of a [23]poem is the analysis of its metrical structure. Contents * [24]1 Fundamentals + [25]1.1 Feet + [26]1.2 Caesurae + [27]1.3 Metric variations + [28]1.4 Enumeration * [29]2 Meter in various languages + [30]2.1 Sanskrit + [31]2.2 Greek and Latin + [32]2.3 Classical Arabic o [33]2.3.1 The Arabic Meters + [34]2.4 Old English + [35]2.5 Modern English o [36]2.5.1 Metrical systems o [37]2.5.2 Frequently-used meters + [38]2.6 French + [39]2.7 Spanish + [40]2.8 Italian + [41]2.9 Ottoman Turkish + [42]2.10 Brazilian Portuguese * [43]3 History * [44]4 Dissent * [45]5 Notes * [46]6 See also [[47]edit] Fundamentals The meter usually depends on [48]acoustic properties of the [49]spoken words, such as the [50]length or [51]stress of their [52]syllables, independently of their meaning. The sound attributes that determine the meter may vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions. [[53]edit] Feet In most [54]Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse can be described as a sequence of [55]feet, each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types -- such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for [56]English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical [57]Latin and [58]Greek poetry). The most common meter in English poetry, the so-called [59]iambic pentameter, is a sequence of five [60]iambic feet or iambs, each consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one ("da-DUM") : So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from [61]ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as [62]Homer, [63]Pindar, [64]Hesiod, and [65]Sappho. [[66]edit] Caesurae Another component of a verse's meter are the [67]caesurae (literally, cuts), which are pauses inserted between certain syllables of the verse. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word. In English poetry, a caesura refers to a break within a line, for example: Till the Spinner of the Years Said 'Now!' And each one hears, And consumation comes, and jars two hemispheres. The caesura would be the 'Now!' [[68]edit] Metric variations Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a [69]trochee ("DUM-da"). Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is [70]catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof - an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle Dame sans Merci': 'And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet) Fast withereth too' (2 feet) [[71]edit] Enumeration In [72]South Asian and Indian traditions where syllabic scripts are used metric patterns are enumerated using two symbols, a [73]breve and a [74]macron (or 'u' and '-'), to represent syllables of one time unit and two time units respectively. They are named 'Laghu' and 'Guru'. A meter is defined by specifying the count of time units for each line, number of lines, position of Laghu and Guru, and sequence of these symbols in each line.. [[75]edit] Meter in various languages [[76]edit] Sanskrit Main article: [77]Sanskrit prosody Main article: [78]Vedic meter Classical Sanskrit and Vedic Sanskrit use meters for most ancient treatises that are set to verse. Prominent Vedic meters include Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtupa, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The basic meter for epic verse is the Sloka. Sanskrit meter is quantitative, similar in general principles to classical Greek and Latin meter. The [79]Bhagavad Gita is mainly written in anustupa (with some vasanta-tilaka sections) interspersed with some [80]Tristubh. For example, when [81]Krishna reveals his divinity to [82]Arjuna the meter changes to [83]Tristubh. [84]Tristubh is the most prevalent meter of the ancient [85]Rigveda, accounting for roughly 40% of its verses [[86]edit] Greek and Latin The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their [87]weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as daa and duh below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical meter. The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a [88]mora, which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a [89]diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of [90]elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as [91]correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite. The most important Classical meter is the [92]dactylic hexameter, the meter of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The first four feet are [93]dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be [94]spondees (daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or a [95]trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a [96]caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening line of the [97]Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter: Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Troi | ae qui | primus ab | oris ("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy. . . ") In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main [98]caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee. The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by [99]Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem [100]Evangeline: This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the [101]dactylic pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a [102]caesura. Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the [103]elegiac [104]distich or [105]elegiac couplet, a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other [106]tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from [107]Ovid's [108]Tristia: Vergili | um vi | di tan | tum, nec a | mara Ti | bullo Tempus a | miciti | ae || fata de | dere me | ae. ("I saw only Vergil, greedy Fate gave Tibullus no time for me.") The Greeks and Romans also used a number of [109]lyric meters, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In [110]Aeolic verse, one important line was called the [111]hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This meter was used most often in the [112]Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet [113]Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic [114]stanza, three hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee. This is the form of [115]Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31): Ille | mi par | esse de | o vi | detur; ille, | si fas | est, supe | rare | divos, qui se | dens ad | versus i | denti | dem te spectat et | audit ("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he seems above the gods, he who sitting across from you gazes at you and listens to you.") The Sapphic stanza was imitated in [116]English by [117]Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics: Saw the white implacable Aphrodite, Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled Shine as fire of sunset on western waters; Saw the reluctant... [[118]edit] Classical Arabic The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as either "long" or "short." A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants. For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains three short vowels. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktubun which syllabifies as mak-tu-bun. These are the only syllable types possible in Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, with very few exceptions, syllables of the type -ak- or -akr- are not found in classical Arabic. Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafa`il or ajza') and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a meter (baHr.) The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's meter is to use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-`-L ( f+e+l+). Thus, the following hemistich qifa nabki min dhikra Habibin wamanzili q+f+a+ n+b+k+ m+n+ dkk+r+j+ hkb+y+b+=+ w+m+n+z+l+1+ Would be traditionally scanned as Fa`ulun mafa`ilun fa`ulun mafa`ilun f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+l+n+ Which, according to the system more current in the west, can be represented as: u-- u--- u-- u-u- [[119]edit] The Arabic Meters Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as follows, using "-" for a long syllable, "u" for a short one, "x" for a syllable that can be long or short and "o" for a position that can either contain one long or two shorts: The T-.awil (a+l+tjw+y+l+): u-x u-x- u-x u-u- f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ The Madid (a+l+m+d+y+d+): xu-- xu- xu- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Basit-. (a+l+b+s+y+tj): x-u- xu- x-u- uu- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+e+l+n+ The Kamil (a+l+k+a+m+l+): o-u- o-u- o-u- m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ The Wafir (a+l+w+a+f+r+): u-o- u-o- u-- m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ The Hajaz (a+l+h+g+z+): u--x u--x m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ The Rajaz (a+l+r+g+z+): x-u- x-u- x-u- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ The Ramal (a+l+r+m+l+): xu-- xu-- xu- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The Sari` (a+l+s+r+y+e+): xxu- xxu- -u- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The MunsariH (a+l+m+n+s+r+hk): x-u- -x-u -uu- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ The Khafif (a+l+x+f+y+f+): xu-- x-u- xu-- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Mud-.ari` (a+l+m+dda+r+e+): u-x x-u-- m+f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Muqtad-.ib (a+l+m+q+t+ddb+): xu- u- uu- f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+f+t+e+l+n+ The Mujtathth (a+l+m+g+t+tk): x-u- xu-- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Mutadarik (a+l+m+t+d+a+r+k+): o- o- o- o- (Here, each "o" can also be "xu") f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The Mutaqarib (a+l+m+t+q+a+r+b+): u-x u-x u-x u- f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+ [[120]edit] Old English The metric system of [121]Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and more related to the verse forms of most of older [122]Germanic languages. It used [123]alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae played a major role in [124]Old English poetry. [[125]edit] Modern English Most English meter is classified according to the same system as Classical meter with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the meter can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the [126]iamb in two syllables and the [127]anapest in three. (See [128]Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.) [[129]edit] Metrical systems The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.^[130][1] The four major types^[131][2] are: [132]accentual verse, [133]accentual-syllabic verse, [134]syllabic verse and [135]quantitative verse. The [136]alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).^[137][3] It is to be noted, however, that the use of foreign meters in English is all but exceptional.^[138][4] [[139]edit] Frequently-used meters The most frequently encountered meter of English verse is the [140]iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible. [141]John Milton's [142]Paradise Lost, most [143]sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as [144]blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of [145]William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though [146]Tennyson ([147]Ulysses, [148]The Princess) and [149]Wordsworth ([150]The Prelude) also make notable use of it. A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a [151]heroic couplet, a [152]verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see [153]Pale Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are [154]Dryden and [155]Pope. Another important meter in English is the [156]ballad meter, also called the "common meter", which is a four line stanza, with two pairs of a line of [157]iambic tetrameter followed by a line of [158]iambic trimeter; the [159]rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In [160]hymnody it is called the "common meter", as it is the most common of the named [161]hymn meters used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as [162]Amazing Grace:^[163][5] Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound That saved a wretch like me; I once was lost, but now am found; Was blind, but now I see. [164]Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad meter: Great streets of silence led away To neighborhoods of pause; Here was no notice -- no dissent -- No universe -- no laws. [[165]edit] French In [166]French poetry, meter is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line, because it is considered as less important than rhymes. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where [167]h aspiré counts as a consonant). At the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it is called "masculine" in the other cases. The most frequently encountered meter in Classical French poetry is the [168]alexandrine, composed of two [169]hemistiches of six syllables each. Two famous alexandrines are La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë ([170]Jean Racine) (the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae), and Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine! ([171]Victor Hugo) (Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!) Classical French poetry also had a complex set of [172]rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into account when describing the meter of a poem. [[173]edit] Spanish In [174]Spanish poetry the meter is determined by the number of syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count, having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables. Interestingly, Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the vowels in the line. For example: Cuando salí de Collores, fue en una jaquita baya, por un sendero entre mayas, arropás de cundiamores... This stanza from Valle de Collores by [175]Luis Llorens Torres, uses eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no syllables in the final count is either added or subtracted. Still in the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine. Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from "sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables, permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. This license is called a [176]synalepha (Spanish: [177]sinalefa). There are many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by consonants. Some common meters in Spanish verse are: * [178]Septenary: A line with the seven poetic syllables * [179]Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This meter is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English ballads, and in most proverbs. * [180]Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This meter plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is commonly used in sonnets, among other things. * [181]Alexandrine: A line consisting of twelve syllables. [[182]edit] Italian In Italian poetry, meter is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile) or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be in the same syllable: so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly [183]trochaic nature of the Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose, and the [184]Novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse. Some common meters in Italian verse are: * Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllabe is on the fifth, with a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello / Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti) * [185]Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one. * [186]Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for which this meter is particularly well-suited. * [187]Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there are various kinds of possible accentations . It is used in sonnets, in ottava rima, and in many other works. [188]The Divine Comedy, in particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main stress pattern is 4th and 10th syllable. [[189]edit] Ottoman Turkish In the [190]Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (t+f+e+l+ tef'ile) and of poetic meter (w+z+n+ vezin) were indirectly borrowed from the [191]Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the [192]Persian language. [193]Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, [194]mora-timed meter. The [195]moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types: * Open, or [196]light, syllables (açik hece) consist of either a short [197]vowel alone, or a [198]consonant followed by a short vowel + Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak") * Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapali hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant + Examples: Â-dem ("[199]Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse") * Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a [200]consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant + Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water") In writing out a poem's poetic meter, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "-". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot--the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length--are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows: fa` (-) fe ul (. -) fa` lün (- -) fe i lün (. . -) fâ i lün (- . -) fe û lün (. - -) mef' û lü (- - .) fe i lâ tün (. . - -) fâ i lâ tün (- . - -) fâ i lâ tü (- . - .) me fâ i lün (. - . -) me fâ' î lün (. - - -) me fâ î lü (. - - .) müf te i lün (- . . -) müs tef i lün (- - . -) mü te fâ i lün (. . - . -) These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic meter for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used meters are the following: * me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün . - - - / . - - - / . - - - / . - - - Ezelden sah-i `ask-.uñ bende-i fermaniyüz cana Mah-.abbet mülkinüñ sultan-i `ali-saniyüz cana Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain^[201][6] --[202]Bâkî (1526-1600) * me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün . - . - / . . - - / . - . - / . . - H-.ata' o nerkis-i sehladadir sözümde degil Egerçi her süh-.anim bi-bedel begendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words --Seyh Gâlib (1757-1799) * fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün - . - - / - . - - / - . - - / - . - Bir seker h-.and ile bezm-i sevka cam ettiñ beni Nim s-.un peymaneyi sak-.i tamam ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough^[203][7] --[204]Nedîm (1681?-1730) * fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün . . - - / . . - - / . . - - / . . - Men ne h-.acet ki k-.ilam derd-i dilüm yara `ayan K-.amu derd-i dilümi yar bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart --[205]Fuzûlî (1483?-1556) * mef' û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün - - . / . - - . / . - - . / - - . Sevk-.uz ki dem-i bülbül-i seydada nihanuz H-.unuz ki dil-i gonçe-i h-.amrada nihanuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose^[206][8] --[207]Nesâtî (?-1674) [[208]edit] Brazilian Portuguese Meters were extensively explored in Brazilian literature, notably during [209]Parnassianism. The most notable ones were: * Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables. * Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables. * [210]Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly used in [211]Parnassian [212]sonnets. + Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables. + [213]Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and tenth syllables. + Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables. + Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and tenth syllables. * [214]Hendecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables. + [215]Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two [216]hemistiches. * Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables. + Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 feet, divided into two [217]hemistiches of 8 syllables each. [[218]edit] History Further information: [219]History of poetry Metrical texts are first attested in early [220]Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the [221]Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the [222]Rigveda. That the texts of the [223]Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of [224]Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the [225]Hebrew Bible, e.g. by [226]Gustav Bickell^[227][9] or [228]Julius Ley^[229][10], but they remained inconclusive^[230][11] (see [231]Biblical poetry). Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian [232]Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to [233]Homer and [234]Hesiod. [235]Latin verse survives from the [236]Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c. BC), in the [237]Saturnian meter. [238]Persian poetry arises in the [239]Sassanid era. [240]Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-European metrical texts (with the possible exception of the Chinese [241]Shi Jing). The oldest surviving fragment of [242]Germanic poetry is the verse on one of the [243]Gallehus horns (ca. AD 400). [244]Irish and [245]Arabic poetry both have early records dating from about the 6th century. [246]Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European [247]Minnesang, [248]Trouvère or [249]Bardic poetry, Classical [250]Persian and [251]Sanskrit poetry, [252]Tang dynasty [253]Chinese poetry or the [254]Japanese [255]Heian period [256]Man'yoshu. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by [257]Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of [258]Shakespeare and [259]Milton. [[260]edit] Dissent Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of poetry. Twentieth century [261]American poets [262]Marianne Moore, [263]William Carlos Williams, and [264]Robinson Jeffers, were poets who believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy" [265]Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his technique "rolling stresses". Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic lines from her famous poem [266]"Poetry" illustrate her contempt for meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent): nor is it valid to discriminate against "business documents and school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must make a distinction however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetry Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the [267]variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's [268]Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called [269]sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. [[270]edit] Notes 1. [271]^ For example, [272]Robert Wallace, in his 1993 essay '[273]Meter in English (essay)' asserts that there is only one meter in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in [274]David Baker (editor), [275]Meter in English, A Critical Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, 1996. [276]ISBN 1-55728-444-X. 2. [277]^ see for example, [278]Paul Fussell, [279]Poetic Meter and Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, 1965, revised 1979. [280]ISBN 0-07-553606-4. 3. [281]^ [282]Charles O. Hartman writes that quantitative meters "continue to resist importation in English" ([283]Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. [284]ISBN 0-8101-1316-3, page 34). 4. [285]^ According to [286]Leonardo Malcovati (Prosody in England and Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, 2006. [287]ISBN 1-928589-26-X), '[very] little of it is native'. 5. [288]^ The [289]ballad meter commonality among a wide range of song lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between various songs, such as [290]Amazing Grace, the Ballad of [291]Gilligan's Isle, [292]House of the Rising Sun, theme from the [293]Mickey Mouse Club, and others. 6. [294]^ Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology. [295]ISBN 0-292-70472-0. p. 93. 7. [296]^ Ibid. p. 134. 8. [297]^ Ibid. p. 131. 9. [298]^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879, "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882 10. [299]^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887 11. [300]^ the [301]Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old Testament calls them 'Procrustean'. [[302]edit] See also * [303]Foot (prosody) * [304]Meter (music) * [305]List of classical meters. 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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Greek_and_Latin 32. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Classical_Arabic 33. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#The_Arabic_Meters 34. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Old_English 35. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Modern_English 36. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Metrical_systems 37. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Frequently-used_meters 38. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#French 39. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Spanish 40. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Italian 41. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Ottoman_Turkish 42. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Brazilian_Portuguese 43. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#History 44. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Dissent 45. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#Notes 46. 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=3 67. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesura 68. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=4 69. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochee 70. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalectic 71. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=5 72. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian 73. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breve 74. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macron 75. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=6 76. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=7 77. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody 78. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_meter 79. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita 80. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristubh 81. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna 82. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arjuna 83. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristubh 84. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristubh 85. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda 86. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=8 87. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_weight 88. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mora_(linguistics) 89. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphthong 90. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision 91. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correption 92. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylic_hexameter 93. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactyl_(poetry) 94. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spondee 95. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochee 96. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesura 97. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid 98. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesura 99. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow 100. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangeline 101. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylic_pentameter 102. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesura 103. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegy 104. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distich 105. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegiac_couplet 106. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy 107. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid 108. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristia 109. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetry 110. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolic_verse 111. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendecasyllabic_verse 112. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapphic_stanza 113. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho 114. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanza 115. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catullus 116. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language 117. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algernon_Charles_Swinburne 118. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=9 119. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=10 120. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=11 121. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_poetry 122. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_language 123. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterative_verse 124. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_poetry 125. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=12 126. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iamb 127. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anapest 128. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_(prosody) 129. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=13 130. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#cite_note-0 131. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#cite_note-1 132. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accentual_verse 133. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accentual-syllabic_verse 134. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_verse 135. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_verse 136. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterative_verse 137. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#cite_note-2 138. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28poetry%29#cite_note-3 139. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meter_(poetry)&action=edit§ion=14 140. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iambic_pentameter 141. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton 142. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost 143. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet 144. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blank_verse 145. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare 146. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tennyson,_1st_Baron_Tennyson 147. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_(poem) 148. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Princess_(poem) 149. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wordsworth 150. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Prelude 151. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_couplet 152. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_verse_forms 153. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pale_Fire 154. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden 155. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pope 156. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballad_meter 157. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iambic_tetrameter 158. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iambic_trimeter 159. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyme 160. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn 161. 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