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Meter (poetry)

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   In [15]poetry, the meter (or metre) is the basic [16]rhythmic structure
   of a [17]verse. Many traditional [18]verse forms prescribe a specific
   verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular
   order. [19]Prosody is a more general [20]linguistic term, that includes
   poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of [21]prose, whether
   formal or informal. The [22]scansion of a [23]poem is the analysis of
   its metrical structure.

   Contents

        * [24]1 Fundamentals
             + [25]1.1 Feet
             + [26]1.2 Caesurae
             + [27]1.3 Metric variations
             + [28]1.4 Enumeration
        * [29]2 Meter in various languages
             + [30]2.1 Sanskrit
             + [31]2.2 Greek and Latin
             + [32]2.3 Classical Arabic
                  o [33]2.3.1 The Arabic Meters
             + [34]2.4 Old English
             + [35]2.5 Modern English
                  o [36]2.5.1 Metrical systems
                  o [37]2.5.2 Frequently-used meters
             + [38]2.6 French
             + [39]2.7 Spanish
             + [40]2.8 Italian
             + [41]2.9 Ottoman Turkish
             + [42]2.10 Brazilian Portuguese
        * [43]3 History
        * [44]4 Dissent
        * [45]5 Notes
        * [46]6 See also

[[47]edit] Fundamentals

   The meter usually depends on [48]acoustic properties of the [49]spoken
   words, such as the [50]length or [51]stress of their [52]syllables,
   independently of their meaning. The sound attributes that determine the
   meter may vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic
   traditions.

[[53]edit] Feet

   In most [54]Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse
   can be described as a sequence of [55]feet, each foot being a specific
   sequence of syllable types -- such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for
   [56]English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical [57]Latin and
   [58]Greek poetry).

   The most common meter in English poetry, the so-called [59]iambic
   pentameter, is a sequence of five [60]iambic feet or iambs, each
   consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one
   ("da-DUM") :
   So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
   So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

                                     da

                                     DUM

                                     da

                                     DUM

                                     da

                                     DUM

                                     da

                                     DUM

                                     da

                                     DUM

   This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from
   [61]ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as [62]Homer, [63]Pindar,
   [64]Hesiod, and [65]Sappho.

[[66]edit] Caesurae

   Another component of a verse's meter are the [67]caesurae (literally,
   cuts), which are pauses inserted between certain syllables of the
   verse. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot
   caused by the end of a word. In English poetry, a caesura refers to a
   break within a line, for example:

   Till the Spinner of the Years Said 'Now!' And each one hears, And
   consumation comes, and jars two hemispheres.

   The caesura would be the 'Now!'

[[68]edit] Metric variations

   Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines
   that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a
   foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a [69]trochee ("DUM-da").
   Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first
   syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is [70]catalexis,
   where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof
   - an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle
   Dame sans Merci':

          'And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet)
          Fast withereth too' (2 feet)

[[71]edit] Enumeration

   In [72]South Asian and Indian traditions where syllabic scripts are
   used metric patterns are enumerated using two symbols, a [73]breve and
   a [74]macron (or 'u' and '-'), to represent syllables of one time unit
   and two time units respectively. They are named 'Laghu' and 'Guru'. A
   meter is defined by specifying the count of time units for each line,
   number of lines, position of Laghu and Guru, and sequence of these
   symbols in each line..

[[75]edit] Meter in various languages

[[76]edit] Sanskrit

   Main article: [77]Sanskrit prosody
   Main article: [78]Vedic meter

   Classical Sanskrit and Vedic Sanskrit use meters for most ancient
   treatises that are set to verse. Prominent Vedic meters include
   Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtupa, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The
   basic meter for epic verse is the Sloka. Sanskrit meter is
   quantitative, similar in general principles to classical Greek and
   Latin meter. The [79]Bhagavad Gita is mainly written in anustupa (with
   some vasanta-tilaka sections) interspersed with some [80]Tristubh. For
   example, when [81]Krishna reveals his divinity to [82]Arjuna the meter
   changes to [83]Tristubh. [84]Tristubh is the most prevalent meter of
   the ancient [85]Rigveda, accounting for roughly 40% of its verses

[[86]edit] Greek and Latin

   The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length
   of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized
   according to their [87]weight as either "long" syllables or "short"
   syllables (indicated as daa and duh below). These are also called
   "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long
   and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and
   the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English
   poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with
   stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and
   short syllables in classical meter.

   The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a [88]mora, which is
   defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to
   two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a
   [89]diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants.
   Various rules of [90]elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable
   from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and
   shortening rules (such as [91]correption) can create long or short
   syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite.

   The most important Classical meter is the [92]dactylic hexameter, the
   meter of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The first
   four feet are [93]dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be [94]spondees
   (daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is
   either a spondee or a [95]trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of
   either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There
   is usually a [96]caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening
   line of the [97]Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter:

          Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Troi | ae qui | primus ab | oris

                ("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of
                Troy. . . ")

   In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first
   syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count
   as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The
   third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by
   the main [98]caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is
   nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee.

   The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by [99]Henry Wadsworth
   Longfellow in his poem [100]Evangeline:

          This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the
          hemlocks,
          Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the
          twilight,
          Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,
          Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms.

   Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the [101]dactylic
   pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each
   of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts
   as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in
   total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half,
   but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first
   half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a [102]caesura.

   Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of
   dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the
   [103]elegiac [104]distich or [105]elegiac couplet, a form of verse that
   was used for the composition of elegies and other [106]tragic and
   solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that
   was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from [107]Ovid's
   [108]Tristia:

          Vergili | um vi | di tan | tum, nec a | mara Ti | bullo
          Tempus a | miciti | ae || fata de | dere me | ae.

                ("I saw only Vergil, greedy Fate gave Tibullus no time for
                me.")

   The Greeks and Romans also used a number of [109]lyric meters, which
   were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In
   [110]Aeolic verse, one important line was called the
   [111]hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This meter was used
   most often in the [112]Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet
   [113]Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic
   is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a
   dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic [114]stanza, three
   hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl
   and a trochee. This is the form of [115]Catullus 51 (itself an homage
   to Sappho 31):

          Ille | mi par | esse de | o vi | detur;
          ille, | si fas | est, supe | rare | divos,
          qui se | dens ad | versus i | denti | dem te

                      spectat et | audit

                ("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he
                seems above the gods, he who sitting across from you gazes
                at you and listens to you.")

   The Sapphic stanza was imitated in [116]English by [117]Algernon
   Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics:

          Saw the white implacable Aphrodite,
          Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled
          Shine as fire of sunset on western waters;

                Saw the reluctant...

[[118]edit] Classical Arabic

   The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical
   Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as
   either "long" or "short."

   A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants.
   For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains
   three short vowels. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, or a
   short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktubun
   which syllabifies as mak-tu-bun. These are the only syllable types
   possible in Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a
   syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in
   the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, with very few
   exceptions, syllables of the type -ak- or -akr- are not found in
   classical Arabic.

   Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafa`il or
   ajza') and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a meter
   (baHr.)

   The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's meter is to
   use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-`-L (
   f+e+l+). Thus, the following hemistich

   qifa nabki min dhikra Habibin wamanzili

   q+f+a+ n+b+k+ m+n+ dkk+r+j+ hkb+y+b+=+ w+m+n+z+l+1+

   Would be traditionally scanned as

   Fa`ulun mafa`ilun fa`ulun mafa`ilun

   f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+l+n+

   Which, according to the system more current in the west, can be
   represented as:

   u-- u--- u-- u-u-

[[119]edit] The Arabic Meters

   Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them
   allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as
   follows, using "-" for a long syllable, "u" for a short one, "x" for a
   syllable that can be long or short and "o" for a position that can
   either contain one long or two shorts:

   The T-.awil (a+l+tjw+y+l+):

   u-x u-x- u-x u-u-

   f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+

   The Madid (a+l+m+d+y+d+):

   xu-- xu- xu-

   f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+

   The Basit-. (a+l+b+s+y+tj):

   x-u- xu- x-u- uu-

   m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+e+l+n+

   The Kamil (a+l+k+a+m+l+):

   o-u- o-u- o-u-

   m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+

   The Wafir (a+l+w+a+f+r+):

   u-o- u-o- u--

   m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ f+e+w+l+n+

   The Hajaz (a+l+h+g+z+):

   u--x u--x

   m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+

   The Rajaz (a+l+r+g+z+):

   x-u- x-u- x-u-

   m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+

   The Ramal (a+l+r+m+l+):

   xu-- xu-- xu-

   f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+

   The Sari` (a+l+s+r+y+e+):

   xxu- xxu- -u-

   m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+

   The MunsariH (a+l+m+n+s+r+hk):

   x-u- -x-u -uu-

   m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+

   The Khafif (a+l+x+f+y+f+):

   xu-- x-u- xu--

   f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+

   The Mud-.ari` (a+l+m+dda+r+e+):

   u-x x-u--

   m+f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+

   The Muqtad-.ib (a+l+m+q+t+ddb+):

   xu- u- uu-

   f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+f+t+e+l+n+

   The Mujtathth (a+l+m+g+t+tk):

   x-u- xu--

   m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+

   The Mutadarik (a+l+m+t+d+a+r+k+):

   o- o- o- o- (Here, each "o" can also be "xu")

   f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+

   The Mutaqarib (a+l+m+t+q+a+r+b+):

   u-x u-x u-x u-

   f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+

[[120]edit] Old English

   The metric system of [121]Old English poetry was different from that of
   modern English, and more related to the verse forms of most of older
   [122]Germanic languages. It used [123]alliterative verse, a metrical
   pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number
   (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed
   syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae played a major
   role in [124]Old English poetry.

[[125]edit] Modern English

   Most English meter is classified according to the same system as
   Classical meter with an important difference. English is an accentual
   language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed
   syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical
   systems. In most English verse, the meter can be considered as a sort
   of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively.
   The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the [126]iamb
   in two syllables and the [127]anapest in three. (See [128]Foot
   (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.)

[[129]edit] Metrical systems

   The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.^[130][1]
   The four major types^[131][2] are: [132]accentual verse,
   [133]accentual-syllabic verse, [134]syllabic verse and
   [135]quantitative verse. The [136]alliterative verse of Old English
   could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of
   accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a
   line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables;
   accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of
   stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse
   only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse
   regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse
   is often considered alien to English).^[137][3] It is to be noted,
   however, that the use of foreign meters in English is all but
   exceptional.^[138][4]

[[139]edit] Frequently-used meters

   The most frequently encountered meter of English verse is the
   [140]iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet
   per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic
   variations practically inexhaustible. [141]John Milton's [142]Paradise
   Lost, most [143]sonnets, and much else besides in English are written
   in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly
   known as [144]blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most
   famously represented in the plays of [145]William Shakespeare and the
   great works of Milton, though [146]Tennyson ([147]Ulysses, [148]The
   Princess) and [149]Wordsworth ([150]The Prelude) also make notable use
   of it.

   A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a [151]heroic couplet,
   a [152]verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century
   that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see [153]Pale
   Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic
   couplets are [154]Dryden and [155]Pope.

   Another important meter in English is the [156]ballad meter, also
   called the "common meter", which is a four line stanza, with two pairs
   of a line of [157]iambic tetrameter followed by a line of [158]iambic
   trimeter; the [159]rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter,
   although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the
   meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In
   [160]hymnody it is called the "common meter", as it is the most common
   of the named [161]hymn meters used to pair many hymn lyrics with
   melodies, such as [162]Amazing Grace:^[163][5]

          Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound

                That saved a wretch like me;

          I once was lost, but now am found;

                Was blind, but now I see.

   [164]Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad meter:

          Great streets of silence led away
          To neighborhoods of pause;
          Here was no notice -- no dissent --
          No universe -- no laws.

[[165]edit] French

   In [166]French poetry, meter is determined solely by the number of
   syllables in a line, because it is considered as less important than
   rhymes. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is
   elided before a vowel (where [167]h aspiré counts as a consonant). At
   the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical
   (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English
   verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it
   is called "masculine" in the other cases.

   The most frequently encountered meter in Classical French poetry is the
   [168]alexandrine, composed of two [169]hemistiches of six syllables
   each. Two famous alexandrines are

          La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë

                ([170]Jean Racine)

   (the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae), and

          Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine!

                ([171]Victor Hugo)

   (Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!)

   Classical French poetry also had a complex set of [172]rules for rhymes
   that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into
   account when describing the meter of a poem.

[[173]edit] Spanish

   In [174]Spanish poetry the meter is determined by the number of
   syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last
   word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the
   accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule
   states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of
   syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic
   syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies
   on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the
   final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical
   number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to
   last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count,
   having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables.
   Interestingly, Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance
   languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the
   vowels in the line. For example:

          Cuando salí de Collores,
          fue en una jaquita baya,
          por un sendero entre mayas,
          arropás de cundiamores...

   This stanza from Valle de Collores by [175]Luis Llorens Torres, uses
   eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line
   have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no
   syllables in the final count is either added or subtracted. Still in
   the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine.
   Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each
   other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has
   actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and
   form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero
   entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from
   "sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables,
   permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. This
   license is called a [176]synalepha (Spanish: [177]sinalefa). There are
   many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that
   may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic
   rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only
   manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by
   consonants.

   Some common meters in Spanish verse are:
     * [178]Septenary: A line with the seven poetic syllables
     * [179]Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This meter
       is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English
       ballads, and in most proverbs.
     * [180]Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This
       meter plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is
       commonly used in sonnets, among other things.
     * [181]Alexandrine: A line consisting of twelve syllables.

[[182]edit] Italian

   In Italian poetry, meter is determined solely by the position of the
   last accent in a line. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse
   which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven
   syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth
   syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile)
   or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a
   vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be
   in the same syllable: so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four
   syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a
   fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly [183]trochaic nature of the
   Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far
   easier to compose, and the [184]Novenary is usually regarded as the
   most difficult verse.

   Some common meters in Italian verse are:
     * Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllabe is on the fifth, with
       a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello /
       Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti)
     * [185]Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth
       one.
     * [186]Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh
       syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the
       first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for
       which this meter is particularly well-suited.
     * [187]Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth
       syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there
       are various kinds of possible accentations . It is used in sonnets,
       in ottava rima, and in many other works. [188]The Divine Comedy, in
       particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main
       stress pattern is 4th and 10th syllable.

[[189]edit] Ottoman Turkish

   In the [190]Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot
   (t+f+e+l+ tef'ile) and of poetic meter (w+z+n+ vezin) were indirectly
   borrowed from the [191]Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of
   the [192]Persian language.

   [193]Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written
   in quantitative, [194]mora-timed meter. The [195]moras, or syllables,
   are divided into three basic types:
     * Open, or [196]light, syllables (açik hece) consist of either a
       short [197]vowel alone, or a [198]consonant followed by a short
       vowel
          + Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak")
     * Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapali hece) consist of either a long
       vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel
       followed by a consonant
          + Examples: Â-dem ("[199]Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at
            ("horse")
     * Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one
       closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a
       [200]consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant
          + Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water")

   In writing out a poem's poetic meter, open syllables are symbolized by
   "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "-". From the different
   syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot--the
   majority of which are either three or four syllables in length--are
   constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:
         fa` (-) fe ul (. -) fa` lün (- -) fe i lün (. . -)
         fâ i lün (- . -) fe û lün (. - -) mef' û lü (- - .) fe i lâ tün
   (. . - -)
         fâ i lâ tün (- . - -) fâ i lâ tü (- . - .) me fâ i lün (. - . -)
   me fâ' î lün (. - - -)
         me fâ î lü (. - - .) müf te i lün (- . . -) müs tef i lün (- - .
   -) mü te fâ i lün (. . - . -)

   These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different
   ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic
   meter for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used meters are
   the following:
     * me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün
       . - - - / . - - - / . - - - / . - - -

         Ezelden sah-i `ask-.uñ bende-i fermaniyüz cana
   Mah-.abbet mülkinüñ sultan-i `ali-saniyüz cana Oh beloved, since the
   origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love
   Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain^[201][6]

                --[202]Bâkî (1526-1600)

     * me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün
       . - . - / . . - - / . - . - / . . -

         H-.ata' o nerkis-i sehladadir sözümde degil
   Egerçi her süh-.anim bi-bedel begendiremem Though I may fail to please
   with my matchless verse
   The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words

                --Seyh Gâlib (1757-1799)

     * fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün
       - . - - / - . - - / - . - - / - . -

         Bir seker h-.and ile bezm-i sevka cam ettiñ beni
   Nim s-.un peymaneyi sak-.i tamam ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire
   you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile
   Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk
   enough^[203][7]

                --[204]Nedîm (1681?-1730)

     * fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün
       . . - - / . . - - / . . - - / . . -

         Men ne h-.acet ki k-.ilam derd-i dilüm yara `ayan
   K-.amu derd-i dilümi yar bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my
   sickness of heart to my love
   I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart

                --[205]Fuzûlî (1483?-1556)

     * mef' û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün
       - - . / . - - . / . - - . / - - .

         Sevk-.uz ki dem-i bülbül-i seydada nihanuz
   H-.unuz ki dil-i gonçe-i h-.amrada nihanuz We are desire hidden in the
   love-crazed call of the nightingale
   We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose^[206][8]

                --[207]Nesâtî (?-1674)

[[208]edit] Brazilian Portuguese

   Meters were extensively explored in Brazilian literature, notably
   during [209]Parnassianism. The most notable ones were:
     * Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables.
     * Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables.
     * [210]Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly
       used in [211]Parnassian [212]sonnets.

          + Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables.
          + [213]Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and
            tenth syllables.
          + Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables.
          + Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and
            tenth syllables.

     * [214]Hendecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables.

          + [215]Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two
            [216]hemistiches.

     * Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables.

          + Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 feet, divided into two
            [217]hemistiches of 8 syllables each.

[[218]edit] History

   Further information: [219]History of poetry

   Metrical texts are first attested in early [220]Indo-European
   languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the
   same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the
   [221]Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the [222]Rigveda. That the texts
   of the [223]Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should
   not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of
   [224]Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct
   metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the [225]Hebrew Bible,
   e.g. by [226]Gustav Bickell^[227][9] or [228]Julius Ley^[229][10], but
   they remained inconclusive^[230][11] (see [231]Biblical poetry). Early
   Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian [232]Avesta and in the
   Greek works attributed to [233]Homer and [234]Hesiod.

   [235]Latin verse survives from the [236]Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c.
   BC), in the [237]Saturnian meter. [238]Persian poetry arises in the
   [239]Sassanid era. [240]Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be
   the earliest known non-Indo-European metrical texts (with the possible
   exception of the Chinese [241]Shi Jing). The oldest surviving fragment
   of [242]Germanic poetry is the verse on one of the [243]Gallehus horns
   (ca. AD 400). [244]Irish and [245]Arabic poetry both have early records
   dating from about the 6th century.

   [246]Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning
   traditions as diverse as European [247]Minnesang, [248]Trouvère or
   [249]Bardic poetry, Classical [250]Persian and [251]Sanskrit poetry,
   [252]Tang dynasty [253]Chinese poetry or the [254]Japanese [255]Heian
   period [256]Man'yoshu. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is
   characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a
   tradition begun by [257]Petrarca's generation and continued into the
   time of [258]Shakespeare and [259]Milton.

[[260]edit] Dissent

   Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of
   poetry. Twentieth century [261]American poets [262]Marianne Moore,
   [263]William Carlos Williams, and [264]Robinson Jeffers, were poets who
   believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental
   part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric
   Fallacy" [265]Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if
   someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2
   notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation?
   Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness &
   mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not
   just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his
   technique "rolling stresses".

   Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was
   written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic
   lines from her famous poem [266]"Poetry" illustrate her contempt for
   meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem
   does not remain perfectly consistent):

                            nor is it valid

                                        to discriminate against "business
                                        documents and

                school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must
                make a distinction

                                  however: when dragged into prominence by
                                  half poets, the result is not poetry

   Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the
   lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the
   [267]variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his
   poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that
   turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's
   [268]Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he
   called [269]sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this
   older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English
   literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables,
   with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each
   repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable
   number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot,
   with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot.

[[270]edit] Notes

    1. [271]^ For example, [272]Robert Wallace, in his 1993 essay
       '[273]Meter in English (essay)' asserts that there is only one
       meter in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in
       [274]David Baker (editor), [275]Meter in English, A Critical
       Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, 1996. [276]ISBN
       1-55728-444-X.
    2. [277]^ see for example, [278]Paul Fussell, [279]Poetic Meter and
       Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, 1965, revised 1979. [280]ISBN
       0-07-553606-4.
    3. [281]^ [282]Charles O. Hartman writes that quantitative meters
       "continue to resist importation in English" ([283]Free Verse: An
       Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. [284]ISBN
       0-8101-1316-3, page 34).
    4. [285]^ According to [286]Leonardo Malcovati (Prosody in England and
       Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, 2006. [287]ISBN
       1-928589-26-X), '[very] little of it is native'.
    5. [288]^ The [289]ballad meter commonality among a wide range of song
       lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between
       various songs, such as [290]Amazing Grace, the Ballad of
       [291]Gilligan's Isle, [292]House of the Rising Sun, theme from the
       [293]Mickey Mouse Club, and others.
    6. [294]^ Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology.
       [295]ISBN 0-292-70472-0. p. 93.
    7. [296]^ Ibid. p. 134.
    8. [297]^ Ibid. p. 131.
    9. [298]^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879,
       "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882
   10. [299]^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887
   11. [300]^ the [301]Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old
       Testament calls them 'Procrustean'.

[[302]edit] See also

     * [303]Foot (prosody)
     * [304]Meter (music)
     * [305]List of classical meters.

   Retrieved from "[306]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry)"
   [307]Categories: [308]Poetic devices | [309]Prosody
   Hidden categories: [310]Articles needing additional references from
   February 2009 | [311]All articles needing additional references

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