Memory
   `Memory' is a label for a diverse set of cognitive capacities by which
   not happening now, so memory seems to differ from perception. We
   remember events which really happened, so memory is unlike pure
   imagination. Memory seems to be a source of knowledge, or perhaps just
   we are embedded in time. Memory goes wrong in mundane and minor, or in
   Although an understanding of memory is likely to be important in
   part of contemporary philosophical discussion of memory which is
   memory have philosophical presuppositions and implications. A related
   entry addresses epistemological issues about memory.
     * 1. The Concept of Memory
          + 1.2 Episodic Memory and Autobiographical Memory
          + 1.3 Memory and Causal Connectedness
     * 2. Memory and Representation
     * 3. Memory in the Philosophy of Cognitive Science
          + 3.2 Interdisciplinarity in the Sciences of Memory
          + 3.3 Distributed Models of Memory
          + 3.4 Memory, Distributed Cognition, and Social Science
          + 3.5 External Memory
1. The Concept of Memory
   memory is probably extremely faulty, but I do not know how to improve
   that "the unsatisfactory nature of Hume's account of memory is noticed
   memory so hard to understand?
   attempt to explain memory (Malcolm 1977, Deutscher 1989). But
   subtleties of subjective memory experience need not be neglected or
   of memory would fail on its own terms.
   "because it evokes ideas in [his] memory" (18 March 1630, in Descartes
   man's memory. He may simply find himself tearful, the music making him
   former case is a genuine form of memory at all. But scientific
   memory is at the heart of much current empirical and theoretical work
   memory by stressing "the complex and partly theoretical nature of our
   a battery of different but related concepts of memory, which are now
   memory processes and systems.
   memory. Bergson (1908/1991) and Russell (1921) distinguished
   `recollective memory' from `habit memory', while Broad (1925) and
   Furlong (1948) further distinguished recollective memory from
   `propositional memory'. This classification (see also Ayer 1956, D.
   Philosophers' `habit memory' is psychologists' `procedural memory', a
   `Propositional memory' is `semantic memory' or memory for facts, the
   `Recollective memory' is `episodic memory', also sometimes called
   `personal memory' or `direct memory' by philosophers: this is memory
   `declarative memory', in contrast to nondeclarative forms of memory,
   memory: explicit memories, roughly, can be accessed verbally or
   otherwise by the subject, whereas implicit memory is memory without
   awareness. But the category of implicit memory includes a range of
   heterogeneous phenomena, and it may be better to see `implicit memory'
   as a label for a set of memory tasks rather than a distinct variety or
   system of memory (Willingham and Preus 1995).
   However, classification of the many varieties of false `memory' is
   into memory. The very idea of truth in memory, and the attendant
   Much 20th-century philosophical discussion of memory addressed its
   criteria for the reliability of particular memory beliefs (Owens 1999;
   and see the entry on memory: epistemological problems). But
   personal memory for episodes and experiences in the autobiographical
1.2 Episodic Memory and Autobiographical Memory
   John Locke took memory to be a power of the mind "to revive
   episodic memory in similar terms, as a `reliving' of the individual's
   autobiographical memory, although we're often aware of significant
   discussion on episodic memory in animals).
   memory system develops, prelinguistic infants and young children
   possess long-term, episodic memory" (1995, p. 339). One issue here is
   deciding if episodic memory predates full-blown autobiographical
   memory is the question whether the remembered episodes which come to
   Because autobiographical memory thus connects my present self with my
   suitability of a `memory criterion' for deciding questions of the
   John Locke's discussions of memory-swapping and amnesia (see the entry
   cognitive-psychological theories of autobiographical memory
   Marya Schechtman, for example, argues that autobiographical memory
   moments in our lives, that autobiographical memory produces any
   elucidation of our concept of personal memory.
1.3 Memory and Causal Connectedness
   For me to have a personal episodic memory, my present act of
   Martin and Deutscher (1966), developing a causal theory of memory,
   concepts of memory is a reliance on the existence of some kind of
   `memory trace' as a continuous bridge across the temporal gap,
   If we had no grasp of these kinds of causal connection in memory, it
   gaps and errors in memory, some philosophers have argued, itself
   between autobiographical memory, a grasp of time as linear, and a
   temporal asymmetry is built in to autobiographical memory, in that
   ordinary memory practices: we assume, for example, that the remembered
   narratives of memory, a route continuous with the present and future
   In autobiographical memory, we thus assign causal significance to
   Evaluation of this analysis of memory and time requires attention to
   putative principles of plot construction in memory needs
   the cognitive philosophy of memory will be bewilderingly and
   are built in to our concept of memory, remembering is a core instance
   postulated memory traces or representations in the individual mind or
2. Memory and Representation
   `representative' or `indirect' realism in the philosophy of memory.
   This has been the dominant view of memory in modern philosophy of
   mind, and it is assumed in much work on memory in cognitive science.
   the nature of representations in memory, and the various processes in
   framework. Some of the recent work in the cognitive sciences of memory
   hostile to the memory trace claim that in the act of remembering I am
   in direct contact with past events. Memory is "an immediate knowledge
Are we aware of memory representations?
   Some critics of representations have complained that, in memory, there
   Memory may involve representations of the past, most modern
Are there memory representations?
   compatible with the involvement of representations in memory. If that
   trace in the present. A memory trace could then mediate between past
   dissolved the debate about memory representations. In fact many
   critics of memory traces argue that representative realism is
   heart of any theory which relies on representations in memory.
   problems of memory and on the epistemological problems of perception).
   Since memory traces, impressions, or images have figured in theories
   of memory from Aristotle, through Descartes and theorists of the
   ancient model for memory", hopes to expose "the failure of
   memory" (1990, p. 5, p. xi). There is continuity too in metaphors for
   the spatial organization of memory as containing rooms, palaces, or
   the memory trace. The most extreme `localist' account takes memory to
   English natural philosopher Robert Hooke, who took memory ideas in the
   determinate Bigness": for Hooke, memory was a "Repository of Ideas" in
   was localist in the sense that all ideas in memory are "in themselves
   This localist view of memory representations suggests that the memory
   executive mechanism must search for and extract information in memory
   before it can be used. Some models of human memory developed in
   independence of such memory representations is one reason such models
   also quite different weaker or `distributed' models of memory traces
   representative realism about memory.
   In a taxonomy and evaluation of criticisms of memory representations
   hold quite different positive views about memory. The answers sketched
   issues. In particular, the issue of how the content of memory
   how memory traces could provide the right causal connections between
   postponed to section 3. Again, the key question here is whether memory
   the memory" (1980, paragraph 220). Trace theorists, however, can
   and the memory ... are not the same thing" (Schacter 1996, p. 70).
   the memory at the moment one needs it, rather than merely pulling out
   Could memory traces be discovered? Wittgenstein sought to undermine
   ordinary cases of memory "Why must a trace have been left behind?"
   memory trace" which is distanced from "scientific notions for which
   memory which immediately returns me, as I might say, to a past
   Critics respond by denying that the retention involved in memory
   underlying causal processes which ground memory abilities (Warnock
   which the memory trace was meant to explain are now being invoked to
   models of memory. There, as in this general context, the natural
   How can memory traces represent past events or experiences? How can
   of memory. In stating the causal theory of memory, Martin and
   isomorphism to be relied on here? If memory traces are not seen as
   remembering that the target for a theory of memory in the philosophy
   speaking) remember. Even where memory for the gist of an event is
   sometimes tended to assimilate all theories of memory traces or
   memory more as an active resonance or attunement to information of
   views of memory and mind as embodied, embedded, and extended (section
   memory trace. As the great English psychologist of memory Frederic
3. Memory in the Philosophy of Cognitive Science
   remembering. To say that memory is a constructive process is not to
   idea that truth in memory is compatible with some transformation at
   `field' points of view in personal memory is puzzling in many
   sense trust in the reliability of memory.
   `laboratory' approaches to memory (see for example Middleton and
   the mid-1990s given way to this consensus about constructive memory.
   to say that psychologists of memory have turned their research efforts
   of course, to say that accuracy in memory has suddenly been shown by
   of memory, by revealing processes which also operate in veridical
   and `truth' in memory, though not forever inaccessible, is neither a
   science arising from memory research. It then addresses two related
   discussion of the role of memory in recent attempts to link the
3.2 Interdisciplinarity in the Sciences of Memory
   science' (von Eckardt 1999, p. 221), the cognitive sciences of memory
   pre-paradigmatic era. Yet because memory is studied in many different
   Are the various disciplines and subdisciplines which study memory
   autonomous for principled reasons? Or is memory research a case in
   disciplines in the sciences of memory?
   interdisciplinary theory-construction in the sciences of memory. The
   on the neural bases of associative learning and of spatial memory has
   distinction between implicit and explicit memory (1996, pp. 105-139).
   cognitive sciences of memory, there has been less work on cognitive
   psychology of memory. Is there a clear and principled division between
   the cognitive and the social sciences of memory? We return to this
3.3 Distributed Models of Memory
   If we want to retain the notion of memory traces, to account for
   plasticity of memory which `distributed' models suggest is one of the
   most curious and characteristic features of human memory, and one
   weights between units. Memory traces are not stored statically between
     contributing to the composite, superimposed memory representation.
     different memory trace -- either because the item itself is
     the traces of other stimuli, within the same composite memory
   systems, and were clearly described in a number of theories of memory
   Truth in memory is a glaring problem in such a framework. Some
   postulation of even the dynamic distributed memory trace would be
   Shaw 1979, p. 178), this influence of the world on the memory system
   In unsupervised distributed models, memory systems thus extract
   empirical theories of memory described the mind/brain as faithfully
   and melding of representations over time. Of course truth in memory is
   recall, for each memory is many memories. Outside philosophy and the
   courtroom, perhaps we only recognise human memory as operating
   the experienced sedimentations of memory in the body, and of emotion
3.4 Memory, Distributed Cognition, and Social Science
   of memory links cognitive psychology with a diverse body of recent
   broader picture of the operation of personal memory in an intricate
   interpersonal and cultural world? Might the case of memory challenge
   relatively unstable individual memory may need support from more
   a general framework for memory science to make sense of traces both
   explanations in the social sciences of memory will refer to
   the very idea of a social ontology of memory. In his account of
   `collected memory' instead of `collective memory', because "societies
   memory Maurice Halbwachs, Fentress and Wickham worry that his concept
   But this embarrassment about social memory may be unnecessary.
   memory' are not the simple product of isolated individual memories,
   these frameworks of collective memory: "it is not in memory but in the
   individual memory (see also Connerton 1989; Olick and Robbins 1998;
   vocabulary for relations between internal and external memory systems
   term `schema' into the psychology of memory from neurophysiology, he
   aspects of memory. As an enduring but modifiable set of tendencies or
3.5 External Memory
   either cognitive or social scientists talk of `external memory'?
   It's no accident that memory is at the heart of recent work on
   stored memory traces, various theorists explore forms of interplay or
   vehicles of representation in memory, as well as the processes of
   The claim that `external memory' is no mere metaphor does not rest on
   virtues" (1997, p. 220). For example, our internal working memory,
   constantly-moving and fading contents of biological working memory,
   biological working memory is often best seen as a loop in processes
   various kinds of memory scaffolding which humans use, from knots,
   memory techniques, photographs, books, rituals, and computers, have
   covering the motley collection of `memory' processes found in human
   memory in cognition and culture.
   philosophy of memory. Hacking (1995) is a readable and provocative
   philosophical and historical account of problems about false memory
   theories of memory. Carruthers (1990), Small (1997), and Yates (1966)
   are wonderfully detailed histories of ancient and Renaissance memory
   and well-written introductions to the psychology of memory in general:
   psychology and neuropsychology of memory. Fentress and Wickham (1992)
   memory and collective memory. Fara and Patterson (1998) is a diverse
   set of essays on memory for a non-specialist readership. Hoerl and
   interdisciplinary papers on memory and time.
     * Anscombe, G.E.M. (1981) `Memory, "Experience", and Causation', in
       Reduction: a case analysis of memory research', Minds and Machines
     * Ben-Zeev, Aaron (1986) `Two Approaches to Memory', Philosophical
     * Bergson, Henri (1908/ 1911) Matter and Memory, N.M. Paul and W.S.
     * Brewer, William (1996). `What is Recollective Memory?', in D.C.
     * Bursen, Howard A. (1978) Dismantling the Memory Machine.
       Memory', European Journal of Philosophy 5, 105-118.
       case studies in memory impairment. Oxford: Blackwell.
     * Campbell, Sue (2003) Relational Remembering: rethinking the memory
     * Carruthers, Mary (1990) The Book of Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge
       in Neurobiology: the case of spatial memory', in P. Machamer,  R.
       mechanisms in the neuroscience of memory', Philosophy of Science
     * Deutscher, Max (1998) `Memory', in E. Craig (ed.), Routledge
     * Dokic, Jerome (2001) `Is Memory Purely Preservative?', in C. Hoerl
       and T. McCormack (eds) Time and Memory. Oxford: Oxford University
     * Draaisma, Douwe (2000) Metaphors of Memory: a history of ideas
     * Earle, William (1956/7) `Memory', Review of Metaphysics 10, 3-27.
     * Engel, Susan (1999) Context is Everything: the nature of memory.
     * Fara, Patricia and Patterson, Karalyn (eds) (1998) Memory.
     * Fentress, James and Wickham, Chris (1992) Social Memory. Oxford:
     * Foster, Jonathan K. and Jelicic, Marko (eds) (1999) Memory:
     * Furlong, E.J. (1948) `Memory', Mind 57, 16-44.
       the sciences of memory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
     * Halbwachs, Maurice (1925/1992) `The Social Frameworks of Memory',
       in Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, L.A. Coser (ed). Chicago:
     * Halbwachs, Maurice (1950/1980) The Collective Memory, F.J. Ditter
     * Hamilton, Andy (1999) `False Memory Syndrome and the Authority of
       Personal Memory-Claims: a philosophical perspective', Philosophy,
     * Hoerl, C. (1999) `Memory, Amnesia, and the Past', Mind and
     * Hoerl, C. and McCormack, T. (eds) (2001) Time and Memory:
       Development of Autobiographical Memory', Psychological Review 104,
     * Koriat, Asher and Goldsmith, Morris (1996) `Memory Metaphors and
     * Krell, David Farrell (1990) Of Memory, Reminiscence, and Writing:
     * Locke, Don (1971) Memory. London: Macmillan.
     * McClelland, James L. (1995) `Constructive Memory and Memory
       Schacter (ed), Memory Distortion. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
       Model of Human Learning and Memory', in McClelland and Rumelhart
     * McCormack, Teresa (2001) `Attributing Episodic Memory to Animals
       Memory: philosophical and psychological perspectives. Oxford:
     * McCormack, Teresa and Hoerl, Christoph (1999) `Memory and Temporal
       Perspective: the role of temporal frameworks in memory
     * Malcolm, Norman (1963) `A Definition of Factual Memory', in his
     * Malcolm, Norman (1970) `Memory and Representation', Nous 4, 59-70.
     * Malcolm, Norman (1977) Memory and Mind. Ithaca: Cornell University
       and Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 257-284.
       F.I.M. Craik (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Memory. Oxford: Oxford
       Autobiographical Memory', Psychological Science 4, 7-14.
       autobiographical memory and collective narrative', Memory 11,
       Memory', in E. Tulving and F.I.M. Craik (eds) The Oxford Handbook
       of Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 283-295.
     * Olick, Jeffrey (1999) `Collective Memory: the two cultures',
     * Olick, Jeffrey K. and Robbins, Joyce (1998) `Social Memory
       Studies: from "collective memory" to the historical sociology of
     * Owens, David (1996) `A Lockean Theory of Memory Experience',
     * Owens, David (1999) `The Authority of Memory', European Journal of
     * Perner, Josef (2000) `Memory and Theory of Mind', in E. Tulving
       and F.I.M. Craik (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Memory. Oxford:
       Autobiographical Memory: the state of the art', Social Development
     * Roediger, Henry L. (1980) `Memory Metaphors in Cognitive
       Psychology', Memory and Cognition 8, 231-246.
       Memory Trace', Philosophy of Science 42, 1-10.
     * Rubin, David C. (1995) Memory in Oral Traditions: the cognitive
     * Sanders, John T. (1985), `Experience, Memory, and Intelligence',
       memory and the psychology of science. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
     * Schacter, Daniel L. (1995) `Memory Distortion: history and current
       status', in Schacter (ed) Memory Distortion: how minds, brains,
     * Schacter, Daniel L. (1996) Searching for Memory: the brain, the
     * Schacter, Daniel L. (2001) The Seven Sins of Memory. New York:
     * Schechtman, Marya (1994) `The Truth About Memory', Philosophical
     * Shoemaker, Sydney (1972) `Memory', in P. Edwards (ed) Encyclopedia
     * Slors, Marc (2001) `Personal Identity, Memory, and Circularity: an
       alternative for Q-memory', Journal of Philosophy 98, 186-214.
       studies of memory and literacy in classical antiquity. London:
     * Sorabji, Richard (1972) Aristotle on Memory. London: Duckworth.
     * Squires, Roger (1969) `Memory Unchained', Philosophical Review 78,
     * Stern, David G. (1991) `Models of Memory: Wittgenstein and
     * Straus, Erwin (1966) `Memory Traces', in Straus, Phenomenological
     * Sutton, John (1998) Philosophy and Memory Traces: Descartes to
       Interdisciplinarity in the Sciences of Memory', in H. Clapin, P.
     * ter Hark, Michel (1995) `Electric Brain Fields and Memory Traces:
       multiple memory systems debate', in J.K. Foster and M. Jelicic
       (eds) Memory: systems, process, or function?. Oxford: Oxford
     * Tulving, Endel (1983) Elements of Episodic Memory. Oxford: Oxford
     * Tulving, Endel (1993) `What is Episodic Memory?', Current
     * Tulving, Endel (1999) `Episodic vs Semantic Memory', in F. Keil
       of Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
       ecological reformulation of perception for understanding memory',
       in L.-G. Nilsson (ed), Perspectives on Memory Research. Hillsdale,
     * Warnock, Mary (1987) Memory. London: Faber.
       Development of Autobiographical Memory', Developmental Review 15,
       Alternative to the Traditional Conception of Memory', Behaviorism
       Implicit Memory' Psyche 2.
     * Yates, Frances (1966) The Art of Memory. London: Routledge and
     * Young, James (1993) The Texture of Memory: Holocaust, memorials,
     * Zemach, E.M. (1983) `Memory: what it is, and what it cannot
       Memory, (John Sutton, U. Macquarie)
     * Bibliography on Memory in the philosophy of psychology, (David
     * Resources on the Human Ecology of Memory, (John F. Kihlstrom, U.
     * Resources and Courses on the History and Psychology of Memory,
     * Aristotle's text, On Memory and Reminiscence, (translated by J.I.
   connectionism | consciousness: unity of | memory: epistemological